"One generation opens the road upon which another generations travels."

前人種樹，後人乘涼。

Marco Polo was a wealthy man when he returned to Venice form China after an absence of twenty-six years. That was the most important fact about his strange and adventurous journey. Had it not been for the jewels and silks and musk that he brought back he would probably have died a forgotten man - just another Venetian adventurer who had wandered off to some distant part of the earth and returned home penniless to die in poverty and obscurity. His neighbors would not have started off to make their fortunes in China. The need for a shorter route to that country would not be developed. Columbus would have lacked incentive for his historic voyage which was not made to prove that the world was round but to provide a better trade route to the rich countries of the Orient.  

　　在消失了二十六年之後，馬可波羅以一個富有人的身份從中國回到了威尼斯。更重要的是他那趟奇特危險的旅程。要不是那些他帶回來的珠寶、絲綢與麝香，他大概會成為另一個被遺忘的威尼斯人-就像其他遊蕩過很長一段旅途，卻身無分文地回來，至死前都貧困以及默默無聞的冒險者。他的鄰人也不會開始出發到中國去尋求財富。一條到那個國家更短的路程也不會被發展。哥倫布也將缺乏他那趟歷史性冒險的動機，那趟並非是為了證明地球是圓的，而是為了提供一條更好的路徑，一個通往東方的富有國家的冒險。

Messer Marco had many stories to tell when he returned home in the summer of 1295. He told of many cities he had seen with suburbs larger than the whole city of Venice or its hated rival Genoa; of massive walls surmounting mountaintops, stretching away as far as the eye could reach; of canals which were hundreds of mils long and as straight as the flight of an arrow. He told of pieces of printed paper which circulated throughout the country in the place of money and were as valuable as coins of gold; of a people so refined and cultured that they might settle serious differences of opinion without sticking each other in the back with daggers.

馬可在歸鄉的1295年夏季裡有很多故事要說。他說他見過很多城市的郊區甚至比整個威尼斯城，或是威尼斯所厭惡的競爭者熱那亞城還要大；他說大量的城牆盤據在山頂上，遠遠地展開到視線所不能及的地方；他說有些運河有幾百英里長，而且筆直地就像箭矢飛翔過一般。他說有種被印刷出來的紙張被當成貨幣在全國流通，而且跟金幣一樣有價值。他說有一群溫文有教養的人，能夠處理各種嚴重衝突的意見，而不必在彼此的背後捅刀子。

Nothing like this had ever been heard of in the Europe. Most of the things he told about were unbelievable because they were far behind the imagination of the Europeans of that period. Everyone thought he was a liar who did not have wit enough to be plausible. The story about the printed money was entirely unbelievable because no one in Europe had ever seen a piece of printing of any kind. Equally absurd was his insistence that he had seen with his own eyes a curious black rock the Chinese dug from the ground and burned, producing flames hotter than that from well-seasoned wood. He said there were more people in China than in all the rest of the world, but that even the common people ate off plates and almost everyone had at least one silk gown for holiday wear. His name became a symbol of falsehood. When small boys thought they had caught a playmate in an exaggeration they would taunt him with provocative singsong; “ and so says Marco Polo.” He was in fact one of the most truthful travelers in the history but his reputation as a liar lasted as long as he lived and for generations afterward. Because of his tales he was not even allowed to die in peace. On his death-bed in 1324 he was exhorted to prepare himself for absolution of his sins by retracting some of his lies; but as long as there was any breath in his old body he continued to whisper. “I have not told half of what I saw.”

在歐洲從來沒有聽過這樣的事。大部份他所說的事是不可信的，因為那遠遠超過那個時期歐洲人的想像力。每個人都覺得他甚至是個連說謊都不會的騙子。關於印刷出來的貨幣這故事更是完全不可信，因為在歐洲沒有人見過任何一片印刷品。同樣荒謬的是，他堅持他親眼看過中國人從地下挖掘出一種黑色的奇怪石頭拿來燒，它產生的火焰甚至比季節對的木頭還要旺。他說中國的人口比中國以外的世界其他地區還要多，但是每個人都吃的飽，而且幾乎每個人至少有一套節慶才穿的絲質長袍。他的名字變成一種負面的象徵。當小孩覺得他們逮到一個玩伴在吹牛時，他們會用嘲弄的語調唱著氣人的歌：「馬可波羅也是這樣說。」雖然他是歷史上最真實的旅行者之一，但是騙子的評價一直跟著他到死，直到好幾代之後。甚至因為他的傳奇，他連死前都不得安寧。在1324臨死的這一年，他被神父規勸撤回一些謊言好準備得到罪衍的赦免；但是只要他殘舊的身軀還有一口氣在，他都持續地低語著：「我連我看到的一半都還沒說完呢。」(編按：馬可的遭遇讓我想起海賊王空島黃金鐘篇的栗子頭諾蘭德，偉大的冒險家總逃不過被當成瘋子的命運。)

Although his relatives and neighbors did not believe his stories, there was convincing evidence of the wealth he brought home with him. In celebration of his return there was a big family dinner party attended by the all Polos in Venice. After the servants had been sent from the room and the doors secured, Marco changed his clothing and theatrically appeared in the threadbare and tattered garments he had wore in his long journey home from China. Then he ripped the seams of his cloak and doublet and quarts of jewels – rubies, diamonds, sapphires, emeralds, pearls, and carbuncles – spilled on the floor like wheat from burst sack. There were enough jewels to make a king envious. His shabby baggage was brought in and every member of the family given a piece of silk, richer than any that had even been seen in Venice. This was but a port of his treasure he had brought with him and his riches appeared to be inexhaustible. Twenty years later he was still bring jewels or small parcels of musk or rolls of silk brocade from some hiding place and selling them. Probably some precious stone he brought from China went into jeweled decorations of the high altar of St. Mark’s which was been completed.

雖然他的親人與鄰居並不相信他的故事，但是關於他帶回財富的證據卻是可信的。當時在一場慶祝他歸鄉的家族晚宴上，當侍者們被送出房間而且門被鎖上，馬可換上他從中國回到家，這漫長旅程裡所穿的襤褸服裝戲劇性的出現。然後他撕開斗蓬以及內襯上衣的接縫處，大量的珠寶 – 紅寶石、鑽石、藍寶石、綠寶石、珍珠與紅玉 – 像小麥從飽滿的麻袋裡般爆開灑落地板。那裡的珠寶夠讓一個國王嫉妒了。他的破行李袋被搬進來，每個家族成員都分到一緞絲綢，品質比威尼斯城裡任何貨色還要好。然而這些只不過是他帶回來的財富其中一部份而已，他的富有似乎無窮無盡。二十年後，他仍然從一些隱密處拿出珠寶，或是一些麝香，或是幾捲絲綢來賣。也許經過這些年，一些他從中國帶回來的珍貴石頭已經變成了鑲嵌在聖馬可祭壇上的寶石。（編按：最後一句是用真正荒謬的想像，石頭變寶石，來反諷當時歐洲人不相信馬可。）

As news of Marco’s riches got about, many Venetians started for China. A new continent had been discovered with almost unbelievable opportunities for wealth. They may not have known hat Marco had prospered by stealing tax money from the public treasury during the periods when he was an official in the Chinese government. These early followers of Marco Polo discovered many new trade routes but there were as many pirates as honest traders among them. The peaceful Chinese were rich and easily plundered. The Venetians and Genoese did not have the field to themselves very long. Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch adventurers soon were leaders in the profitable business of piracy.

當馬可致富的消息傳開，許多威尼斯人開始出發中國。一個全新的大陸已經被發現了，而且充滿了幾乎無法置信的致富機會。他們也許不知道馬可的財富是他在中國當官時，靠偷取政府財庫的稅金而來的。這些早期馬可的追隨者發現了許多貿易的新路徑，但是在他們其中海盜跟正直的貿易者一樣多。和平的中國人是富有而且容易被掠奪的。威尼斯與熱那亞並沒有在這塊領域得意很久，很快地葡萄牙、西班牙與荷蘭人成為這塊有利益的掠奪事業領先者。

The journey undertaken by the Venetians was not an easy one. Last year I flew over Marco Polo’s route and made the trip from Rome to Rangoon in five days. He and the others who followed him traveled wearily for years to cover the same distance. The journey involved dangers so hazardous and hardship so severe that two hundred years later Admiral Columbus unsuccessfully tried to find another and better route and accidentally discovered America. They had to traveled more than a third of the way around the world through many countries with strange languages and curious customs and be prepared to defend themselves against pirates and robbers at almost every stage of the journey. They had to depend on queer food and were not even certain of finding that. But they could easily ignore the difficulties when they remembered Marco Polo’s jewels and thought of the wealth to be gained at the end of the journey, and of the comforts, honors and luxuries they would enjoy when they returned home. The lure of wealth attracted many. When Columbus set sail for what he thought were Eastern shores of China he fully expected to meet many of his countrymen who were living there.

威尼斯人的旅程並不簡單。去年我飛過馬可波羅的路徑，用了五天從羅馬旅行到緬甸的仰光（編按：作者本人活在螺旋槳飛機的時代）。他與其他的追隨者卻需要用好幾年的時間疲憊地走完相同的距離。因為這趟旅程包含太多的危險與艱辛，導致了兩百年後哥倫布海軍上將嘗試找另一條更好的路徑，失敗卻意外發現了美洲。他們必須走超過地球表面三分之一的路途，穿越許多擁有奇特語言與風俗的國家，而且還必須無時無刻防備盜賊與搶匪。他們必須仰賴奇怪的食物，甚至有時還不確定找的到東西吃。但是他們能很容易的忽視這些困難，靠著想到馬可波羅的珠寶，還有想到這趟旅程結束後得到的財富，回到家所能享受到舒適、光榮與奢侈的生活。發財的誘惑吸引了很多人。當哥倫布航行到他所認為的”中國東部海岸”，他是多期待能見到在那裡生活的故鄉人士。

It was not solely the search for wealth and adventure that sent people from Mediterranean to China. When the age of seventeen Marco set out with his father and uncle they were accompanied part of way by two Dominican friars who had been delegated by the Pope to convert the heathen Chinese to Christianity. This companionship of traders and missionaries had continued to the present time. There was wealth to be made and there were souls to be saved and each of these opportunities aroused the enthusiasms of men. The missionaries made a bad start and two Dominicans were unworthy predecessors of the long line of devout and heroic men who followed them. They were fatigued by the first part of the journey and frightened by the dangers ahead of them. They told the Polos they were ill and returned home, giving Marco’s father some scared objects to take to the Emperor of China.

不僅僅是追求財富與冒險的因素把人從地中海地區送到中國。十七歲的馬可與他的父親與叔叔陪伴著兩名多明尼加修道士，他們兩人被教宗指派到中國，將中國異教徒感化成基督教徒。這種貿易者與傳道士的同伴關係一直持續到現在。有財要發而且有靈魂要拯救，每一個這樣的機會激昂了人們的熱情。傳道士示範了一個不好的開始；對那些為數眾多，虔誠而且英勇的追隨者來說，這兩位多明尼加人不配當他們的前輩。他們在旅途的第一階段就感到疲憊，並害怕等在前頭的危險。他們跟波羅家的人說自己病了，轉託馬可的父親一些要交給中國皇帝的神聖物品，然後就回家了。

But when Marco returned to Venice he told of the surprising existence of churches of Nestorian Christians in China and the Rome priests who then went to this strange country had a new incentive for their work. The heretical sect of Nestorians was an ancient enemy of Rome and the fact that it existed in this remote part of the world was a provocative challenge to the church even more urgent than the existence of millions who were followers of Buddha. This feud between Rome and Syria was the first of many foreign controversies – ecclesiastical, political and commercial – to be fought on the soil of China with witch the Chinese themselves had no interest and no concern. It was also one of the least important. The heretics were not so powerful as they were thought to be and the attention of Rome priests was devoted to the heathen. No descendants could be found of the Syrians who had formed a colony in China and established Nestorian churches. Nor could any trace to be found of descendants of the Jews who had fled from Babylon to China in the first great flight of the persecuted race. There were synagogues – as there were Nestorian churches – but the worshipers were Chinese in whom it was impossible to find a faint trace of Jewish or Syrian ancestry. China had absorbed them as she has many other races.

但是當馬可回到威尼斯，他提到居然有Nestorian教堂存在於中國（編按：中國稱這基督教派為景教），之後跑到這奇怪國家的羅馬傳教士對他們的工作有了新的動機。Nestorian這個異端教派是羅馬的古代敵人，而他存在於世界上遙遠的另一端這個事實，對教會來說是個氣人的挑釁，甚至比幾百萬佛教徒的存在還來的重要。在中國的土地上有許多外來的爭議，包含宗教、政治與商業上的；而羅馬與敘利亞的世仇是其中第一個被鬥爭到底，但中國人卻一點也不聞不問的。事實上這件事一點也不重要。這幫異教徒一點也不像他們想的那樣強大，而羅馬教士的注意力專注到其他異教徒身上。沒有在中國建立殖民地與Nestorian教堂的敘利亞人後裔被發現，也沒有任何跡象顯示，那些在巴比倫受到迫害而展開第一次大逃亡的猶太人，有任何後裔存在這土地上。雖然存在有猶太與Nestorian教堂，但是在膜拜的中國人身上根本不可能看到猶太或是敘利亞人血統的影子。中國已經把他們的後裔像其他許多種族般吸收了。（編按：西元前586年左右，巴比倫國王尼布甲尼薩攻陷猶太的耶路薩冷，毀城並將全城猶太人帶回巴比倫當奴隸，猶太人從此失去國家，四處離散。十二世紀時曾有一部份猶太人沿著絲路逃到中國，被稱為「青回回」。）

In the centuries that followed thousands of Roman Catholic priests went to China, learned the language, adopted Chinese customs in food and clothing and outwardly appeared to merge into the native population. They ate with chopsticks, shaved their foreheads, and grew queues and wore baggy Chinese trousers and cotton quilted coats and jackets. They built humble chapels, preached their faith and made converts and died obscurely. To their converts they were men of God, but to the great mass of Chinese all foreigners were lumped together as foreign devils and made the target of unruly mobs.

幾個世紀以來幾千個羅馬天主教傳道士跑到中國，學習語言，採用中國吃與穿的風俗，讓自己外表看起來像融入當地社會。他們用筷子進食，剃光前額留起辮子，穿著寬鬆地像袋子的中國褲子，以及內裡襯棉的大衣與外套。他們建立簡陋的禮拜堂，宣揚信仰收納信徒，死時沒沒無名。對他們的信徒來說，他們是上帝的人；但是對大多數的中國人來說，所有的外國人被統稱為「洋鬼子」，成了眾矢之的。（編按：”were made the target of unruly mobs” 有夠難翻譯！「被當成任性群眾的目標」這樣的直譯實在太模糊，只好用上成語了。）

The priests who traveled so far from the Mediterranean were prepared to carry the blessings of civilization as well as of Christianity to a people they assumed would be both heathen and ignorant. But as soon as they reached the China they were thrown into contact with a civilization much higher than that of Europe, just as Macro Polo had contended that it was. The first book was still to be produced in Europe but the libraries of the Buddhist monasteries were full of them, printed from caved wooden blocks. There were printing presses in all the large Buddhist establishments. Throughout the country scholars constituted a class honored above all others. It was no place for the barefooted bead-telling monks such as had been sent to convert the pagan tribes of Ireland. Only men of the highest intelligence and the greatest learning could escape the scorn of the Chinese literati. That was a difficult lesson for Rome to learn, but stupid policies of the earlier popes were rectified by the later ones and scholarly Jesuits were sent to China put their scientific knowledge at the service of the Emperor. They corrected Chinese ideas of astronomy and under their direction Chinese workmen constructed an astronomical observatory equal to any in Europe. Father Veribest became the head of the Chinese Bureau of Mathematics while Schall, Ricci and scores of other priests acted as trusted advisors to emperors or the high officials.

　　遠道從地中海地區來到中國的傳教士們，原本準備將基督教的文明祝福帶來給這些他們以為既沒宗教信仰，又無知的一群人。但是他們一抵達中國，馬上就接觸到一個遠高於當時歐洲的文明，就像馬可波羅所堅稱的一樣。第一本印刷書才準備要在歐洲面世，但是佛寺裡的圖書館早就塞滿活字印刷出來的書了。比較大型的佛教建築裡都擁有印刷機。整個國家裡學者們的地位高高存在其他社會階層之上。根本沒有地方讓像當初被派到愛爾蘭異教區傳道，赤著腳的預言僧侶們有發言的機會。只有最有智慧而且學識最淵博的傳教士能逃過中國文人們的諷刺。這對羅馬來說是一次很困難的教訓，不過早期教宗們的愚蠢政策隨即被訂正，學者型的耶穌會信徒被派到中國貢獻他們的科學知識給皇帝。他們更正了中國人關於天文學的概念，而且在他們的指導下，中國工匠建造了一座規模不輸給歐洲的天文台。南懷仁神父成為中國數學署的長官（編按：清朝的欽天監，天文研究裡包含深奧的數學），同時湯若望, 利瑪竇還有其他許多的傳教士都成為皇帝與高官們值得信賴的顧問。

They taught the Chinese and also learned from them. The huge storehouses of Chinese history, philosophy and literature had not even been inventories but it offered the foreign scholar riches as enticing as the jewels which fell from the seams of Marco Polo’s ragged garments. The work of research and translation of Chinese learning undertaken by priests had occupied more centuries than the building of ant great cathedral in Europe, and it is still going on. The Catholic church could rest its reputation for scholarship solely on the work of its priests in China. Protestant missionaries who followed much later ably carried on this tradition. It was through the missionaries that Chinese learned of Christianity and also through them that the West learned of the philosophy of Confucius and of the many other Chinese sages.

他們教導中國人，也從對方身上學習。大量到無法被歸類的中國歷史、哲學與文學的知識，如同從馬可波羅襤褸衣裳的縫隙跌落一地的誘人珠寶，豐富了外國學者的庫藏。被傳道士主導的研究與翻譯持續進行到現在，經歷的時間甚至比現今歐洲任何一座天主教大教堂還久。羅馬天主教甚至可以僅僅依靠它的傳教士在中國的貢獻，奠定學術上的評價。很久之後才出現的新教徒出色地維持這項傳統。透過傳教士，中國人學習到了基督教，而且西方人也學習到孔子以及其他中國聖人的哲學。

Priests and trades arrived together but once they were on the soil of China they traveled different routes. The methods of the earlier traders were not those of peaceful Chinese merchant. They carried a little or no cargo with them but came back with a great deal of wealth. The Chinese called them pirates and built watch towers along the coast to look out for their approach and warn the people to flee. At one time so troublesome that, by order of the Emperor, all inhabitants along the seacoast moved several miles inland and all houses were destroyed so that when the pirates arrived there was no booty for them to take and they sailed away empty-handed. It was the same “scorched earth” policy that Chinese used many centuries later in effectively hampering the Japanese invasion starting in 1937. The priests who had came to China so peacefully finally became as troublesome as the pirates, though for different reasons. Jesuits, Franciscans and Dominicans bickered with each other over the semi-religious reverence of Chinese children for parents and of Chinese scholars for Confucius and then quarreled violently over which Chinese character should be used in translating the word God. Either in a sprite of helpfulness or in the pride of his scholarship, the Emperor attempted to solve the latter problem but the priests were not content to accept his decision and the whole question was referred to the Pope who didn’t know one Chinese character from another. He decided against the Emperor and the exasperated Son of Heaven promptly dissolved all the Catholic establishments in his empire and sent the priests home. The traders went with them, for the righteous indignation of the Emperor was all-embracing. Only the Portuguese remained in Macao, the tiny colony which had been leased in 1557 and made immense wealth through trade with Japan as well as China. If it had not been this unfortunate controversy and if the priests had been a little less unbending in the matter of old Chinese rites and ceremonies, Christianity might at that time have replaced Buddhism in China.

　　傳道士與貿易者一起抵達中國的土地後便分道揚鑣了。早期貿易者們賺錢的方式並不像和平的中國商人。他們只帶著一點東西或是什麼都沒帶，確帶著大量的財富回去。中國人稱他們為海盜，並且沿者海岸線建造瞭望塔來監視他們的靠近，並且警告人們逃跑。有一次他們實在是太棘手了，依照皇帝的命令，某個地區的所有居民往內陸遷移幾里，燒毀所有房舍好讓那群盜匪到來時，收刮不到任何財物只能雙手空空回航。幾個世紀以後在1937年開始，中國人也是使用相同的「焦土」政策來有效阻礙日本入侵。而那些來到中國頗為溫和的修道士，最後也變得跟海盜一樣棘手，雖然完全是因為不同的理由。耶穌會修士、法蘭西修士與多明尼加修士為了中國小孩對父母、學者對孔子所行的半宗教禮儀而彼此鬥嘴（編按：基督教禁止崇拜偶像，跪拜這動作的對象只限於上帝）；然後粗暴地爭吵那個中文字應該被拿來翻譯God這個字。也許是基於想幫忙，或是想賣弄學識，皇帝試著為他們解決God這個文字問題，但是傳教士們卻不買帳，而這個問題卻被提交給連一個中文字都不懂的教宗來定奪。教宗否定皇帝的答案，暴怒的「天子」迅速的拆毀統轄境內羅馬天主教堂，將所有的傳教士通通送回家去。貿易者也一起，因為皇帝公正的憤怒是一視同仁的。只有葡萄牙人還留在澳門，一個在1557年租借出去的小殖民地，靠與日本人和中國人貿易賺取不可思議的財富。假如沒有這樣不幸的爭議，而且傳教士能夠對中國慣例與禮節儀式有點彈性，基督教在那個時間點可能已經取代佛教。

（編按：清朝的順治與康熙年間，基督教傳道順利，信徒突破百萬。當時耶穌會教派與皇帝關係良好，欽天監幾乎都由耶穌會學有專精的教士出掌。耶穌會傾向接受、學習中國文化，因此在翻譯God這字時，因為考慮到「天主」這個字擺明了壓過地上皇帝「天子」，所以接受康熙的建議改譯為「天」或「上帝」：亦即祢在天上做祢的皇帝，我在地上做我的皇帝，井水不犯河水；並且下達詔令，說明祭祖祭孔乃中國民間習俗，並非宗教儀式。然而羅馬教廷堅持不准使用耶穌會的譯名，並且禁止中國人跪拜祖先，康熙一怒之下，下令「禁止不遵守耶穌會規矩的教士在中國傳教」。雍正更借題發揮，下令全面禁教，徹底將可能會威脅到君權統治的基督教思想趕出中國。詳情可google「禮儀之爭」。）

By the time trade with China was resumed by any kind of recognized and legalized basis, the relative positions of the foreign concerned had changed. Spain, Holland and Portugal were no longer maritime powers for a series of events had made Britain the successor of them all and it was at the insistence of Britain that China exclusion was broken down. The right to trade at Canton was granted under severe and humiliating restrictions. Little by little ports were opened, almost invariably as the result of military pressure and more privileges granted to traders and missionaries. The era of foreign trade and the development of modern China began in 1842 when a Britain fleet sailed up the Yangtze and after a few minor battles the Treaty of Nanking was signed. Americans shared the privileges gained by British military and diplomatic victory. An ancient taunt that while we never went to war with China we benefited by all of Britain’s wars has just enough truth in it to sting.

　　在任何被認可與合法的對中貿易再度恢復之前，外國勢力關切的相關地位已經被改變。在經歷一系列的事件之後，西班牙、荷蘭與葡萄牙不再是強大的海上強權，英國成為他們之中的佼佼者；而且在英國的堅持之下，中國的排外藩籬被打破。在廣東貿易的權力相當嚴格並且在帶有屈辱性的限制下被同意。漸漸地一個個通商口被開放，幾乎一成不變的都是軍事干預造成的結果，更多的特權被授與通商者與傳教士們。對外貿易的時代以及現代中國的發展開始於1842年，一個英國艦隊開上揚子江打了一些小規模的戰鬥之後，南京條約被簽訂。美國人在英國人軍事與外交上的勝利上分享到甜頭。一個古老的嘲諷說道，「雖然我們從沒跟中國開戰，但只要英國人有打，我們就有賺。」，絕對夠真實來這樣挖苦。

While they competed fiercely with each other in trade the British and Americans worked together on many matters of common interest and during the great part of the past hundred years there has been an effective if unofficial Anglo-American alliance in the Far East. Official circles in London and Washington may have had no official knowledge of this alliance, nor did it necessarily involve any definite agreements or collusion between the diplomatic and consular officials of the two countries. It came about because British and Americans thought in the same way about a lot of old-fashioned things such as justice and right. The International Settlement of Shanghai was the result of joint efforts by representatives of the two nations. Between them they made the English the commercial language of the country. The British came to China by the way of India, bringing with them their ideas of caste and color prejudice and necessity for maintaining the prestige of the white man. They were leaders in trade and the organizers of clubs and Americans adopted or absorbed British ideas and manners to an extent they never realized until they returned home and often found that they were mistaken for Englishmen.

　　當這些海上強權彼此在貿易上激烈競爭，英國人與美國人在許多共同的利益事件上互相合作，因此在過去幾近一百年間，在遠東地區有個具有影響力但非官方的英美聯盟。倫敦與華盛頓的政治圈可能一直沒有關於這聯盟的官方資訊，而這聯盟也不需要得到兩國外交與領事方面上明確的許可或共謀。這聯盟可能來自於英美兩國人在傳統思想上許多相同的地方，比方說正義與權力。上海共同租借地就是這兩個國家共同合作下的代表作。他們之間還使用英文來當商業語言。英國人取道印度來到中國，帶著種性階級制度與種族歧視的觀念，以及維持白人身份地位的必需品。他們是貿易的領導著與俱樂部的組織者，美國人無意識下習慣或是吸收了很多英國觀念與禮節，直到他們回到美國本土後常常被誤認為是英國人。

The tempo of commerce was set by the restricted speed and infrequent arrivals of the sailing ships. Competition seeped in very slowly and profits were huge though sometimes offset by equally huge losses. Some of the early firms became so wealthy, maintained such luxurious establishments and gained such a reputation for generosity that they became known as “the princely houses”. They set a high standard of conduct as well as of living for all the other business houses and had much beside their wealth to justify the classification that had been given them. The piratical element of trade survived in the persons of adventurers who came from many countries with picturesque schemes to make fortunes quickly. While the pattern of the schemes presented different pictures, the design was almost invariably the same – to part some Chinese from his money. A great many succeeded and a few went to jail.

　　商業的發展節奏受限於速度緩慢而且班次不多的船舶。競爭像水在滲漏般遲慢，利益大的驚人，雖然有時損失也是同樣驚人。一些早期的公司變的相當富有，維持著奢華的辦公室，奢侈到到大家所都說那些是「皇宮」。這些建物替其他商業建築物訂立了經營與生活的超高標準，而且靠著資源的多寡來區分這些建物的等級。貿易裡的海盜因子依然存活於來自許多不同國家，抱著快速致富美好願景的冒險者身上。雖然願景呈現出不同的樣貌，但構想上幾乎一成不變的是：從中國人身上剝取金錢。許多人成功了，但少數人被鎖進了大牢。

Diplomats also came. Before the Treaty of Nanking was signed, there were treated by the haughty Chinese officials as “tribute bearers from barbarian tribes” who were exhorted to “tremble and obey” and warned not to disturb the tranquility of the Son of Heaven. The diplomats struggled for more than a century to gain a grudging admission that the white men were equal to the Chinese. For the following century Chinese were struggled to gain an admission that they were equal to the foreigners. When they began the system of negotiating under the guns and warships the diplomats were look upon as impetuous representatives of bullying nations, who had to be cajoled and placated and kept in a goof humor because of the murderous gunboats they had at their command. They never got over the barbarian habit of shouting and pounding the table when things didn’t go to suit them. From the official Chinese point of view all foreigners were troublesome but the diplomats were the worst.

　　外交官也來了。在南京條約簽訂之前，他們被高傲的中國大官視為「蠻國朝貢的人員」，被告誡要「惶恐與臣服」，被警告不得打擾天子的安寧。外交官們花了一世紀以上的時間爭取才獲得不情願的承認：他們白人跟中國人是平等的。然而在接下來的世紀裡，換成中國人來爭取，他們跟外國人是平等的。當外交官開始了擁槍自重的談判方式，他們表現的粗魯就像是從野蠻國家來的；他們必須被獻媚與取悅，保持在一個良好的心情，因為致命的艦隊在他們的掌控下。當事情無法符合他們的觀點，他們無法擺脫野蠻國家吼叫與拍桌的習慣。在中國官員的眼中所有的外國人都很麻煩，而外交官是最糟糕的一種。

China solved many of the problems created by the presence of the foreigner by the simple process of employing foreigners to solve them for her. Marco Polo was only the first of thousands to be in the service of the Chinese government in one capacity or another. Frederick Ward, an American, began the organization of a modern Chinese army to put down the Taiping Rebellion and Captain Charles Gordon, a British army officer, completed the task. Anson Burlingame, an American, was commissioned by the Chinese government to negotiate treaties with European governments. Robert Hart, an Irishman, organized the customs and postal services. These are only a few of many who have held high positions in the Chinese government. There are hundreds if not thousands of many nationalities in the government pay rolls. To most of them China is their adopted country which they serve as faithfully as they would their own.

中國靠聘請外國人來解決外國人引起的洗多問題。馬可波羅在某種形式上是幾千人當中，頭一位服務於中國政府的。Frederick Ward，美國人，創設撲滅太平天國之亂的中國現代軍隊。隊長Charles Gordon，英國陸軍軍官，完成了這項任務。美國人Anson Burlingame被中國政府委託向歐洲政權談判條約。以色列人Robert Hart創設郵政服務。這只是許多在中國政府裡擁有高階地位的少數例子。還有更多破百破千的外國人是領中國政府的薪水的。對他們大多數的人來說中國是養育他們的國家，而他們也像自己的國家般公平對待她。

Every foreigner went to China with a consciousness of his own racial and mental superiority and a smug satisfaction in the belief that there were many things he could teach the Chinese. The British and Americans were more numerous than any other group and in the beginning of this era nothing had occurred to suggest to either that his way of life did not represent perfection. But seven centuries after the visit of Marco Polo the foreigner was still learning from the Chinese.

　　每一個來到中國的外國人都覺得自己有種族與智慧上的優勢，並且沾沾自喜地相信他們有許多事情可以教導中國人。英國人與美國人更是這群人中最大勢力的一群。在這個時代一開始的時候，並沒有任何事情可以讓他們聯想到，自己的生活方式也不完美。（編按：這句話的意思可能是，一開始外國人佔盡物質優勢，並沒有考慮到精神層次的生活。）但馬可波羅造訪過的七個世紀後，外國人還是持續向中國人學習。

The missionaries did teach them any things – medicine and education, and though without design, a desire for foreign products which helped the trader to sells more goods. Even the traders taught the Chinese cooks how to prepare foreign meals, the boy to make cocktails and tailors how to make foreign clothing. Each thought that he was playing his part in modernizing China, and it seldom occurred to him that he was being changed by his life in China. The foreign resident did not lose his racial characteristics but life in China made him different. A group of China Coast residents may represent a half-dozen nationalities but all display the same philosophy of life which was a distinctly Oriental tinge. While affecting to disdain the ways of the Chinese they unconsciously adopted them for their own. Perhaps China taught a great deal more than she learned.

　　傳教士的確教了他們很多事，比如醫藥、教育，而且誰也沒想到，一股對外國產品的渴望讓貿易者銷售更多的貨物。即使貿易商教導中國廚師如何準備外國的餐點，教年輕人調製雞尾酒，教裁縫如何製作外國的衣飾；每個人都認為自己在中國的的現代化上扮演一個重要的角色，但卻絕少想到他的生活正在被改變。這些外來的移居者並未改變外表種族上的特徵，但是在中國的生活卻讓他們不同了。一群在中國沿海地區的移民，可能包含半打以上的國籍，但所有人卻呈現著明顯是東方色調的生活哲學。當他們鄙視中國人的生活方式，自己卻不知不覺中被同化了。也許中國教導的比她學習的還要多很多。

From the Chinese point of view they were quite justified in classing all foreigners as barbarians. Few of them even knew how to enter a room or drink a cup of tea or receive a card correctly. Every act betrayed their uncouthness. Their manners were abominable but the Chinese tolerated them and found their curious customs amusing. They were never hated the extent that their actions justified hatred because in their human relationships the Chinese are the most tolerant of people. A number were killed by the mobs but not a fraction of the number who foolishly or provocatively invited his fate. The many different nationalities would have been a confusing to the Chinese but for the fact that they classified them all as “foreign devils” and paid no more attention to them than was necessary. The influence of foreigners was never as important as the foreigners thought it was. China lumbered on like the slow-moving water buffalo which occasionally snorts and switches its tail if the flies get too troublesome. But in the end Chinese exclusion was broken down, not by the foreign battleships but by the contacts with the foreign business men and missionaries – contacts which in the main were friendly and intimate.

　　從中國人的觀點來看，所有的外國人都很野蠻。他們只有少數知道應該怎麼正確地進門、怎麼喝茶、或是收下一張拜帖。每一個動作都透露著粗俗。他們的無禮讓人厭惡，但是中國人忍受下來，而且進而發現他們令人好奇的習慣很好笑。他們從未因為外國人的行為舉止很討人厭而真的憎恨他們，在中國人的人際關係裡，中國人可算是最有容忍度。有些外國人的確被一些無賴所殺，但這些遇害者有不小部份是自己愚蠢或是挑釁地招來這樣的命運。這麼多國籍的外來者本該造成中國人的困惑，但是事實上，這些人全被統稱為「洋鬼子」並且除了必要的注意之外就不去理會。外國人對中國人的影響從來沒有自己想像中的重要。中國移動地像隻漫步的水牛，偶而嗤嗤鼻，要是覺得蒼蠅實在太煩了，或許還會甩甩尾巴。但是在中國排外政策被打破的末期，並非由於戰艦，而是經由與商人和傳教士的接觸，大部分的接觸都是友善而且怡人的。

The classification of “foreign devils” was general and tentative and was applied by individual Chinese only to foreigners he did not know. With their red faces, protruding eyes and absurdly complicated and uncomfortable clothing all foreigners had the grotesque appearance of devils. On first sight it was impossible for the Chinese to look on them as human beings as themselves. Blondes were the worst because they were the farthest removed from what the Chinese believed to be the natural appearance of a human being. But all were bad enough. There are many country places where the foreigner is still an amusing novelty. On visits into the interior Chinese girls, after one look at me, have screamed with terror and run to their mothers. Small boys have shouted picturesque insults from a safe distance. Old men have managed to keep their face straight when in my presence and then roared with laughter as soon as my back was turned. I supposed every other foreigner who has wandered away from the treaty ports has had the same chastening experience and has found, as I did on hundreds occasions, that a smile or a laugh was always accepted as convincing proof of one’s humanity.

　　「洋鬼子」的分類是常用但短暫，而且是中國人個別拿來稱呼他所不認識的外國人。紅色的臉、突出的眼睛，穿著複雜既又不舒服的無厘頭衣服，所有的外國人都有著魔鬼的詭異樣貌。中國人第一次看到時根本無法把他們當成跟自己一樣的人類看待。金髮尤其是裡面最糟糕的，因為他們是中國人想像中最不像人的一種。但是所有的外國人都差不多糟糕。在很多鄉下地區外國人依然是很新奇好笑的事物。你只要看一眼內地的小女孩，她馬上會驚恐地尖叫然後跑去找媽媽。小男孩則是在很安全的距離外對你做出想像力豐富的辱罵。老年人會在你面前直挺挺地走過去，然後在你背後大聲狂笑。我想其他每一個離開通商口區漫步的外國人都有這樣受折騰的經驗，然後就像我在數不清的場合中發現，一個微笑或者是一個嘲笑都是我們依舊被當成人看待的可信證據。

As the Chinese got acquainted and made friends they found the beneath the peculiar appearance, rough ways and barbarous customs of these people from cross the sea the great many of them were, under the skin, much like themselves. With their greater tolerance as well as their superior ability to probe the character of others, the Chinese were the first to recognize this common human relationship. The white man was much slower about admitting the common brotherhood of man. It was unfortunate that the British came to China by way of India and Malayan states, where for a numbers of reasons which did not exist in China the color line was very tightly drawn. To these British the Chinese were just another colored race who could be created as inferiors and so there was an unnecessarily amount of misunderstanding, bad feeling and bloodshed.

　　當中國人熟悉並開始交往後，他們發現在怪異的樣貌、粗魯的舉止以及渡海而來的野蠻風俗之下，他們大部分的人跟自己骨子裡是相像的。隨著他們的容忍度以及善於推己及人的能力，中國人最先理解到身為人類所該擁有的共同人際關係。白人反而較慢才能承認這種人類手足之情。不幸的是英國人打道經由印度與馬來西亞，因為某些不存在於中國的因素，那裡的種族歧視一直緊緊地被維持著。對那些英國人來說，中國人只是另一種顏色的下等民族，也因此產生了許多不必要的誤解，不愉快的感覺與流血事件。

All the business men expected to follow the example of Marco Polo: make a fortune as soon as possible and then go back home. The only worry they had was about the length of time it would take them. Many remained until their clothing became threadbare but had no jewels to sew in the seams. Most of them missed a great many boats for few ever went home as soon, or did not arrive there as rich, as they expected. Those who did go home, whether to England, America, France, Germany or any one of a dozen other countries, usually found it a disappointing experience. China had got into his blood and only the sights and sounds of old Cathay were dear to them and those who were anxious to get away were soon anxious to return. Hundreds who went home to retire changed their mind and came back to be buried in the soil of the Flowery Kingdom.

　　所有的商人都希望能像馬可波羅一樣：趕快發財，趕快回家。他們只擔憂一件事，就是要花多少時間在上面。很多人留在中國直到衣衫襤褸，但還是沒有任何珠寶可以藏在衣縫裡。大部分的人錯過眾多的船班，其中有些能快速回到家；或是回到家時沒有當初他們預期的那麼富有。回到家的人，不管是到英國、美國、法國、德國或是其他成打以上的國家，通常發現這是一次令人失望的經驗。中國已經潛伏在他們的血液裡，只有老中國的影像與聲音才能讓他們感到親近，那些曾渴望離開的馬上又渴望回來。數不清打算回家養老的人最終又改變心意，回到這個花樣繽紛的王國埋骨。